Pink or blue?

Le statuette segnatempo sono quasi sempre fatte di gesso o di un analogo materiale “povero” ed esternamente sono ricoperti da gel di silice “drogato” con il cloruro di cobalto, un indicatore che vira dal blu al rosa in base all’umidità.

Il gel di silice, grazie alla sua microstruttura porosa, è in grado di assorbire umidità atmosferica e acqua sino al 40% del proprio peso, così quando il tempo è secco il colore della statuetta è blu (colore del cloruro di cobalto anidro), man mano che l’umidità aumenta, il suo colore vira verso il rosa (colore del cloruro di cobalto idrato).

Le statuette segnatempo quindi non prevedono il tempo, ma solo  l’umidità atmosferica.

Leonardo

Molti furono gli strumenti ideati sin dal XV secolo per tentare di rilevare l'umidità atmosferica (cioè la quantità di vapore acqueo presente nell'aria).

I primi igrometri (detti igrometri igroscopici o igroscopi) sfruttavano le proprietà delle sostanze igroscopiche che assorbono e rilasciano l'acqua presente nell'aria con lieve alterazione delle loro dimensioni e del loro peso.     

Niccolò Cusano propose di pesare della lana con una bilancia. Il peso della lana, variando con l'umidità atmosferica, avrebbe dato un'indicazione dello stato igrometrico dell'aria.

Leon Battista Alberti propose di utilizzare invece della lana una spugna, un'idea che sarà riproposta da Leonardo da Vinci.

All'inizio del XVII secolo Santorio descrisse diversi igrometri: uno misurava il cambiamento di peso di un sale igroscopico, un altro computava l'allungamento di una corda tesa e zavorrata al centro e un terzo ricorreva a una corda arrotolata collegata ad un indice.

Francesco Folli e Vincenzo Viviani utilizzarono una corda o una strisciolina di carta i cui cambiamenti di lunghezza indicavano le variazioni dell'umidità atmosferica.

L'igrometro successivamente proposto da Robert Hooke, sfruttava il fatto che una barba del seme di avena si attorciglia in funzione dell'umidità dell'aria.

Altri strumenti utilizzavano fanoni di balena, capelli, lamine di avorio, vesciche natatorie, ecc. Nella seconda metà del XVIII secolo Horace-Bénédict de Saussure propose un igrometro a capello che divenne molto diffuso. Nell'Ottocento ebbero larga fortuna gli igrometri a condensazione che funzionavano sulla base del rapporto tra la temperatura del cosiddetto "punto di rugiada" e l'umidità atmosferica. Il primo strumento di questo tipo fu ideato dal Granduca Ferdinando II de' Medici a metà Seicento.

Fra gli strumenti a condensazione più utilizzati nell'Ottocento si ricordano quello ideato da John Frederic Daniell nel 1820, e quello perfezionato da Henri-Victor Régnault nel 1845.

Un altro strumento igrometrico è lo psicrometro, corredato di due termometri identici: uno con il bulbo secco e l'altro con il bulbo costantemente inumidito da una pezzuola bagnata. Quanto più l'aria è secca, tanto più l'acqua della pezzuola evapora provocando il raffreddamento del bulbo "umido".

L' igrometro di Leonardo

Questo strumento serve a misurare quanta acqua e' presente nell'aria (nel momento in cui si effettua la prova). In pratica, è una bilancia che in un piatto contiene una sostanza igroscopica (spugna, bambagia...) e nell'altro della cera ( che invece non assorbe acqua) .

In condizioni di secco, la bilancia segna zero, mentre incomincerà ad inclinarsi dal lato del materiale igroscopico man mano che aumenta l'acqua nell'aria e di conseguenza il peso del materiale igroscopico.

Disegno tratto da Il Codice Atlantico di Leonardo da Vinci nella biblioteca Ambrosiana di Milano, Editore Milano Hoepli 1894-1904.

Il disegno originale di Leonardo e' conservato nella Biblioteca Ambrosiana. Il foglio contiene vari disegni di diverso soggetto.

 L' igrometro a quadrante può essere fatto risalire al periodo fra il 1480 ed il 1486 e rappresenta uno degli strumenti per poter seguire i cambiamenti meteorologici.

 A sinistra sopra l'igrometro Leonardo infatti scrive:  " Modo a vedere quando si guasta il tempo e sotto "

Hygrometers

Hygrometers are instruments used for measuring relative humidity. A simple form of a hygrometer is specifically known as a psychrometer and consists of two thermometers, one of which includes a dry bulb and one of which includes a bulb that is kept wet to measure wet-bulb temperature. Modern electronic devices use temperature of condensation, changes in electrical resistance, and changes in electrical capacitance to measure humidity changes.

Psychrometers

In a psychrometer, there are two thermometers, one with a dry bulb and one with a wet bulb. Evaporation from the wet bulb lowers the temperature, so that the wet-bulb thermometer usually shows a lower temperature than that of the dry-bulb thermometer, which measures dry-bulb temperature. When the air temperature is below freezing, however, the wet bulb is covered with a thin coating of ice and yet may be warmer than the dry bulb. Relative humidity is computed from the ambient temperature as shown by the dry-bulb thermometer and the difference in temperatures as shown by the wet-bulb and dry-bulb thermometers. Relative humidity can also be determined by locating the intersection of the wet- and dry-bulb temperatures on a psychrometric chart. One device that uses the wet/dry bulb method is the sling psychrometer, where the thermometers are attached to a handle or length of rope and spun around in the air for a few minutes.

Psychrometer calibration

Accurate calibration of the thermometers used is of course fundamental to precise humidity determination by the wet-dry method; it is also important for the most accurate results to protect the thermometers from radiant heat and ensure a sufficiently high speed of airflow over the wet bulb. One of the most precise types of wet-dry bulb psychrometer was invented in the late 19th century by Adolph Richard Aßmann (1845-1918); in English-language references the device is usually spelled "Assmann psychrometer." In this device, each thermometer is suspended within a vertical tube of polished metal, and that tube is in turn suspended within a second metal tube of slightly larger diameter; these double tubes serve to isolate the thermometers from radiant heating. Air is drawn through the tubes with a fan that is driven by a clockwork mechanism to ensure a consistent speed (some modern versions use an electric fan with electronic speed control). According to Middleton, 1966, "an essential point is that air is drawn between the concentric tubes, as well as through the inner one."

It is very challenging, particularly at low relative humidity, to obtain the maximal theoretical depression of the wet-bulb temperature; an Australian study in the late 1990s found that liquid-in-glass wet-bulb thermometers were warmer than theory predicted even when considerable precautions were taken these could lead to errors in calculated RH on the order of 5 percent.

One solution sometimes used for accurate humidity measurement when the air temperature is below freezing is to use a thermostatically-controlled electric heater to raise the temperature of outside air to above freezing. In this arrangement, a fan draws outside air past (1) a thermometer to measure the ambient dry-bulb temperature, (2) the heating element, (3) a second thermometer to measure the dry-bulb temperature of the heated air, then finally (4) a wet-bulb thermometer. According to the World Meteorological Organization Guide, "The principle of the heated psychrometer is that the water vapour content of an air mass does not change if it is heated. This property may be exploited to the advantage of the psychrometer by avoiding the need to maintain an ice bulb under freezing conditions." Since the humidity of the ambient air is calculated indirectly from three temperature measurements, in such a device accurate thermometer calibration is even more important than for a two-bulb configuration.

A Gravimetric Hygrometer is considered to be a primary source for calibration, national standards have been developed in US, UK, EU and Japan. In terms of portability and commercial cost, a Gravimetric Hygrometer is the antithesis of a Sling Psychrometer.

Difficulty of accurate humidity measurement

Humidity measurement is among the more difficult problems in basic meteorology. According to the WMO Guide, "The achievable accuracies [for humidity determination] listed in the table refer to good quality instruments that are well operated and maintained. In practice, these are not easy to achieve." Two thermometers can be compared by immersing them both in an insulated vessel of water and stirring vigorously to minimize temperature variations. A high-quality liquid-in-glass thermometer if handled with care should remain stable for some years. Hygrometers must be calibrated in air, which is a much less effective heat transfer medium than is water, and many types are subject to drift so need regular recalibration. A further difficulty is that most hygrometers sense relative humidity rather than the absolute amount of water present, but relative humidity is a function of both temperature and absolute moisture content, so small temperature variations within the air in a test chamber will translate into relative humidity variations.

Hair tension hygrometers

Other types of hygrometers are also commonly used to determine the ambient humidity. Such devices frequently use a human or animal hair under tension. The traditional folk art device known as a "weather house" works on this principle. In order to see changes that occur over time, several hygrometers record the value of humidity on a piece of graduated paper so that the values can be read off the chart. This can be done by placing on a surface and an instant reading will be given.

Electronic hygrometers

Dewpoint is the temperature at which a sample of moist air (or any other water vapor) at constant pressure reaches water vapor saturation. At this saturation temperature, further cooling results in condensation of water. "Cooled mirror dewpoint hygrometers" are the most precise instruments available. They use a chilled mirror and optoelectronic mechanism to detect condensation on the mirror surface. The temperature of the mirror is controlled by electronic feedback to maintain a dynamic equilibrium between evaporation and condensation on the mirror, thus closely measuring the dewpoint temperature.

Modern instruments use electronic means of recording the information. The two most common electronic sensors are capacitive or resistive. The capacitive sensors sense water by applying an AC signal between two plates and measuring the change in capacitance caused by the amount of water present. The resistive sensors use a polymer membrane which changes conductivity according to absorbed water. Recently, an unbalanced AC Bridge approach was adapted for low power/energy operation and has shown to provide better measurement performance over a wide operating range. To further increase accuracy in this same device, which combines a sensor in data logging instrument, a calibration method utilizing a large memory array was developed to maximize performance. In most instruments, resistive sensors can be read by common meters or data acquisition boards. Temperature must also be measured, as it affects the calibration of all these sensors.